Abstract

The school education and textbooks on both sides in the Cyprus conflict reflect the ongoing ethnic division and suffer from ethnocentrism. The multicultural and multiethnic nature of the island has traditionally been denied in the school cur­ricula on each side, and the history textbooks contain nationalistic themes and historical myths that enhance the conflict, cultivate fear and distrust between the two communities. As a matter of course, the ultimate goal of teaching in Cyprus is not an accurate account of history but an effective contribution to national goals and unity. By examining national memory, identity, and the transmission of the national memory through textbooks, one can vividly see how in Cyprus school education is itself an organic part of the ethnic conflict. Through school education, the Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities both legitimize their respective politi­cal positions in such a way that future citizens are prevented from developing a critical approach.

The Turkish Cypriot education system was until recently nothing but an ideo­logical organization that aimed at the legitimization of the division of Cyprus on the basis that, "the two communities in Cyprus cannot live together." This paper concentrates on an analysis of the educational reform and new secondary school history textbooks in North Cyprus that have been rewritten after the referenda on Annan Plan in 2004. The objective of the author is to compare the old and the new history textbooks from the prism of the reconciliatory education, evaluate the changes and present the current debates on history education amongst the Turkish Cypriots.

The 'Cyprus conflict' has been characterized as one of the world's most intractable problems of ethno-communal conflict, which is still unresolved. Two major ethnic groups of Cyprus, the Greek and Turkish Cypriots are divided along linguistic, his­torical, ethnic and religious lines. Inter-ethnic strife in the island began in mid-1950s against the British Colonialism, turned to a violent struggle and division of the two

communities with bloodshed in late 50s. Turning points of the conflict can be specified as 1963,1974,2004. In 1960, Cyprus got its independence from the British Empire and the Republic of Cyprus was founded by the Turkish and Greek-Cypriot communities. Within three years the ongoing inter-communal strife led to the collapse of the consti­tutional rule in 1963.

The eventual partition of the two communities and the physical division of the island came after the Turkish military intervention following a coup d'etat by the Greek army officers in 1974 to uniting the island with Greece. Since then Cyprus is divided by a demilitarized zone and split into Turkish-Cypriot North and Greek-Cypriot South. In 1974, the UN General Assembly have requested the withdrawal of foreign troops, restoration of human rights and return to the 1960 constitutional order under the Re­public of Cyprus. It has also coordinated a number of unsuccessful negotiation talks aiming at the re-unification of the island under a federal state.^[1]These are: first and second Geneva Conferences, the Vienna talks, 1977 and 1979 Sum­mit meetings, Inter-communal talks between 1979 and 1983, the UN Secretary Gen­eral (SG) Perez de Cuellar's proximity talks in 1984-6, three rounds of talks between 1988 and 1990, the UN SG Boutros Ghali's 'Set of Ideas' and 'Confidence Building Measures' in 1992, the UN Special Representatives separate talks between 1994 and mid-1997, and the last effort the Annan Plan for Cyprus 2002-2004.^[2]The last resolution attempt of the UN -"Basis for a Comprehensive Settlement of the Cyprus Problem"- was proposed by the UN SG Kofi Annan, negotiated by the parties and produced five different versions (Annan I, II, III, IV, and V). The Plan was rejected by the great majority of the Greek Cypriots (76%) in the April 2004 referendum, which led to its failure as a whole.^[3] After the Referendum, the Republic of Cyprus entered the European Union on 1 May 2004 as the only 'legitimate state' on the island. Currently, the EU acquis applies only to the areas under direct Republic of Cyprus control, and is suspended in the areas administered by Turkish Cypriots. Representatives of the both communities continue to the negotiations up till now without any fruitful outcome. On the other hand, the official historical accounts of the Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities mirror each other in a way that they construct blame, silence the pain and de-legitimize the historical existence of the "Other"; ignore processes of socio- cultural interactions between them across time. The conflicting historical narratives of each community take for granted that Cyprus 'belongs' to them on historical grounds. Each community relay and justifies its interpretation of events in the light of current political discourses. A quick survey about the official narratives of both sides show that each side use history as a way to construct its own national identity as the only one and that the "Other" is always at the margin. Nonetheless, marginalising or demonising the "Other" is not specific to Cyprus but one of the 'characteristics' of nationalism and na­tion building processes. As Loring M. Danforth claims, "nationalist movements, there­fore, are twofold in nature. First they define and reject a national other, and then they define and create national self."⁵⁸ Considering Danforth's definition, history textbooks could be used as instruments that each nation 'defines' and 're-defines' the "Other" through their own historical narrative. The way history textbooks are written in Cy­prus illustrates that both sides use history to legitimise their own official policies, using history education in particular.^[4]

Textbook Agendas across the Divide

Examining national memory, identity, and the transmission of the national memory through textbooks, presents how school education is an organic part of the ethnic con­flict. Through school education, the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities both legitimize their respective political positions in such a way that future citizens are prevented from developing a critical approach.

As a consequence of the main findings of the proposed educational reform report of the Republic of Cyprus Committee for Educational Reform (31 August 2004) there exists until today a debate concerning educational reform. The Committee, instructed by the Greek Cypriot Minister for Education and Culture to analyze the Greek Cypriot education system, came to the conclusion that the Greek Cypriot education system suffers from ethnocentrism.^[5] The Committee expressed the view that the general ori­entation and ideology in Cypriot education remains to a large extent "Greek-Cypriot centric", "ethnocentric" and "culturally monolithic".^[6]

In short, the multicultural reality of Cyprus, it argued, is denied and the Hellenic di­mension overemphasized. The Committee suggested that narrow ethnocentric mono- cultural elements of education should be discarded and that a European dimension and the principles of'inclusive democracy', embracing the Turkish Cypriots, should be incorporated.^[7] Nevertheless, there have been no serious attempts yet to revise the edu­cation system on the Greek side. Some examples from the Greek Cypriot Textbooks are as follows:

Before the division of Cyprus in 1974, the Greek Cypriot official history and narrative focused on endorsing the demand for the unification of Cyprus with Greece. In this respect, Greek-Cypriot textbooks have stressed the continuity of Hellenism in Cyprus since ancient Greeks.^[8] The official Greek history commences with the arrival of the Greek Myceneans in 14th BC. It carries on arguing that despite many conquests after­wards, the island maintained it's 'Greekness'. The claim of Cyprus has been historically a Greek island cast doubts on the presence of the Turkish Cypriots on the island. This view considers Turkish Cypriots as 'remains from the Turkish conquest' and so not part of the indigenous population. Niyazi Kizilyurek calls attention to the use of the concept of "Cypriot" exclusively for Greek Cypriots, which gives the impression that all Cypriots are Greek.^[9] The Greek Cypriot history textbooks decline the proper use of Turkish Cypriot and present Turks negatively as occupiers who came to Cyprus with Ottoman conquest.

Until Cyprus became independent in 1960, the syllabuses, curricula and textbooks in Greek Cypriot schools came from Greece. Even since 1960 a few books were lo­cally produced and published, majority of the textbooks continued to come from the Ministry of Education of Greece.^[10] In accordance with a study in education for inter­national misunderstanding on Cyprus School History Textbooks, "the significant fact concerning the history textbooks is the proportion of space (about one third) given to the conflict between Greeks and Turks".^[11] The study shows that in the book for Class VI, the text given to the wars between Greeks and Turks is 109 pages out of 168. In this respect, Turks mirrored as historical enemies and Greeks as insurgents to preserve their language and identity.

However, after the 1974 division of Cyprus, the Greek Cypriot narrative has changed, which also led to the revision of history presented in the textbooks. The desire to re­unite the island drove Greek Cypriot line highlight the past peaceful co-existence of the Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities in Cyprus. However, the new historical perception has not reflected in the educational practices. There has hardly been any reference to the co-existence and cooperation whereas Turkish Cypriots are presented as "Turks" who are historical enemies or opposite of the Greeks.^[12] On the other hand, the official position renounces the acknowledgment of the Turkish Cypriots and the secondary school textbooks refer to the Greek origins of the Turkish Cypriots. Apparently, the turning point in the contemporary history of Cyrus is the war in 1974. According to the Greek Cypriot narrative, the Greek sponsored coup against the go­vernment of the 'Republic of Cyprus' led to the tragic Turkish invasion in 1974, which divided Cyprus between a Dead Zone separating North from South and resulted peo­ple losing their homes and loved ones. However, the suffering and causalities of Turk­ish Cypriots are ignored. There is no reference to the inter-ethnic struggles for the pe­riod 1963-74 that result in forced enclavement of the Turkish Cypriots, displacement and killings. This period in Greek history textbooks referred as the "threat of partition" caused by Turkish Cypriots and Turkey.^[13]

Contrary to the paradigm shift after 1974 concerning the Turkish Cypriots, Greek Cypriot history textbooks entail many stereotypes about the Turks. Findings of a bi- communal 'Education for Peace Project'^[14] indicated that the History of Cyprus text­book, written shortly after 1974 and regularly republished without change, employs an emotionally loaded style of writing and narration of the entire history of Cyprus which is anti-Turkish. Its historical narration creates and consolidates stereotypes.

Ostensibly the History of Cyprus textbook, which is used in the last grade of the elementary schools, contains nationalistic orientations. It is based on the distinction between "us" and the "others". For developing feelings of pride and presenting Cyprus as the homeland of Greeks, the textbook demonstrates Turks as barbarians throughout the history and the Ottoman power as arbitrary, unfair, and cruel. Hence, knowledge on national history is based on a lively narration, which produces images for associating students with a wider national group. This creates feelings of pride for the past and the history of ancestors, in a way that would distort the past and reach the limits of national propaganda.^[15] In the same direction some examples from the Turkish Cypriot Textbooks are as follows:

The Turkish Cypriot education system was nothing but an ideological organization that aimed at the legitimization of the division of Cyprus on the basis that, "the two communities in Cyprus cannot live together." Hence, the "demonisation" of the "other" lay at the very heart of the education system. On account of the ethno-centric ap­proach which presented the Turkish Cypriot national community as an organic part of the "Great Turkish Nation", school education focused more on Turkey and "Turkic world" rather than on Cyprus. Whenever the Greek Cypriots were mentioned they were presented in such a way as to emphasize that the division of Cyprus and separa­tion of the two communities was only "natural".

The bi-communal 'Education for Peace Project' concerning the textbooks in North Cy­prus, illustrated that history textbooks that had until then been used contained many nationalistic themes and references. Nationalism and chauvinism had been the most pervasive features of history books. Children were taught a militaristic notion and loyalty to the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and Turkey inculcated through the promotion of Turkish nationalism.^[16] The project identified the themes, phrases, hidden messages and historical myths that cultivated the conflict, fear and mutual distrust between the two communities in Cyprus, using school curricula and history books as examples.

To counter-balance the Greek Cypriot official narrative stressing the Greek and Hel­lenic origins of Cyprus since the time immemorial, Turkish Cypriot official narrative and national history emphasized the Ottoman/Turkish nature of the island. Thus, the first part of the history book, began with the Ottoman period in Cyprus (called as Turkish rule) and is presented as "a period of justice and peace in Cyprus". Greek Cy- priots were described as unthankful, who rebelled against the Ottoman/Turkish order of "peace and justice." Contemporary Turkish Cypriot history underlined the national struggle for survival against the Greek Cypriot aggression.

The period of inter communal tension from 1964 to 1974 presented as the "dark pe­riod" for the Turkish Cypriots for which "the whole responsibility lies on the Greek Cypriot side". "The Happy End" for the Turkish Cypriot community arrived in 1974 when Turkey undertook a military intervention and divided Cyprus geographically and demographically into two, north and south. Thereafter, "the Turkish Cypriots are living safely and happily in North Cyprus". The narrative in the textbooks goes on "(...) with the declaration of Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), the Turk­ish Cypriot people, who have been fighting against all sorts of oppression and cruelty for years, founded their own State after hundreds of years, in which they will eternally live in freedom and independence."

Overall, the way history was presented and taught in schools across the divide is not helpful in creating an understanding of the other' and encouraging the peaceful co­existence of the two communities. This issue had been raised in the past by foreign peace mediators, who were questioning how any settlement would work given the nationalistic content of school history books.^[17] During the Annan Plan negotiations, member of the Council of Europe Mr. Valt Svimer, after a meeting between the two parties to consider the Council's contribution to the settlement of the Cyprus issue stated that "the Council would take initiatives in promoting the revision of history books by both communities so as to wipe out any allusion to hatred or any misinfor­mation with respect to either sides".^[18]

The revision of school textbooks in the North of the island in essence was a major at­tempt to change' the policy and narrative of the history books used. Alas, the Greek Cypriot education authorities declined to undertake a similar approach. Therefore, this paper provides hereafter an overview of the change' merely in the Northern part of Cyprus; undertakes a comparative analysis of the textbooks before and after the revision and portrays the current debates on history education amongst the Turkish Cypriots.

Underlying Factors of the Change

Since 2004 a visible change has taken place in the education system in the north side of the Island. The first visible change involved re-writing of Cyprus history textbooks used in secondary schools. This decision was not free from the political debate. At the time, the majority of Turkish Cypriots began to react against the former President Denkta^'s policy of a no solution to the "Cyprus problem" and actively become in­volved in a mass movement to bring peace to Cyprus. Civil society organizations such as "This Country is Ours Platform' and the 'Common Vision challenged the old regime and demanded an immediate solution to the Cyprus conflict. The role of the teach­ers unions (KTOS: Turkish Cypriot Teachers' Union; and, KTOEOS: Turkish Cypriot Secondary School Teachers' Union) in this process was of great importance. During the Annan Plan negotiations, the teachers' unions played a major role as promoters of non-violent mass demonstrations. They also have played an active role in promoting a new curriculum.

Concern on how we teach history, how we make linkages between past and present, and how we connect past and present in history teaching, deepened during the peace process. This concern enabled the new administration to make substantial changes to the traditional history textbooks. When Republican Turkish Party (CTP) govern­ment came to power, one of its major tasks was to undertake the revision of history textbooks. The process began with the re-writing of the secondary school history text­books. With the start of the new semester in September 2004, the new history text­books are used in all secondary schools.

Nonetheless, it should be also noted that both Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot left wing political parties and organizations have an alternative view of the past against the dominant nationalist paradigm, which emphasize the shared homeland. They under­line common past experiences and co-operation at the grass root level to prove that the two communities can peacefully co-exist. Once the major leftist party CTP won the elections in 2003, Turkish Cypriot left got the opportunity "to launch their view of history as a new official policy".^[19] Hence, political motivation behind this change is incontestable.

A New Paradigm: Comparison of the Old and New Textbooks

The narrative and discursive strategy of the old textbook presents how Turkish Cypriot schoolbooks were politicized and used as an instrument of propaganda before the re­vision. The former history textbook under the title of 'History of Cyprus' was written by Vehbi Zeki Serter, the President of the Cyprus Turkish History Association, and used in the secondary schools from 1971 till 2004. The textbook commences with the claim of Cyprus as a geographical extension of Anatolia. It argues that Greeks never ruled Cyprus, thus, have no historical connections with the island. The author even contends Greeks living in Cyprus are not Greeks but relics of different nations that invaded Cyprus throughout history.

Throughout the book the author tries to substantiate the claim Cyprus is Turkish due to its Ottoman heritage. Hence, half of the book is devoted to post-Ottoman history of the island. The rest of the book foremost deals with the modern history of Cyprus; provides a detailed account of the post-1960 incidents and neglects any peaceful inter-

Since 2004 a visible change has taken place in the education system in the north side of the Island. The first visible change involved re-writing of Cyprus history textbooks used in secondary schools. This decision was not free from the political debate. At the time, the majority of Turkish Cypriots began to react against the former President Denkta§'s policy of a no solution to the "Cyprus problem" and actively become in­volved in a mass movement to bring peace to Cyprus. Civil society organizations such as "This Country is Ours Platform' and the 'Common Vision' challenged the old regime and demanded an immediate solution to the Cyprus conflict. The role of the teach­ers unions (KTOS: Turkish Cypriot Teachers' Union; and, KTOEOS: Turkish Cypriot Secondary School Teachers' Union) in this process was of great importance. During the Annan Plan negotiations, the teachers' unions played a major role as promoters of non-violent mass demonstrations. They also have played an active role in promoting a new curriculum.

Concern on how we teach history, how we make linkages between past and present, and how we connect past and present in history teaching, deepened during the peace process. This concern enabled the new administration to make substantial changes to the traditional history textbooks. When Republican Turkish Party (CTP) govern­ment came to power, one of its major tasks was to undertake the revision of history textbooks. The process began with the re-writing of the secondary school history text­books. With the start of the new semester in September 2004, the new history text­books are used in all secondary schools.

Nonetheless, it should be also noted that both Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot left wing political parties and organizations have an alternative view of the past against the dominant nationalist paradigm, which emphasize the shared homeland. They under­line common past experiences and co-operation at the grass root level to prove that the two communities can peacefully co-exist. Once the major leftist party CTP won the elections in 2003, Turkish Cypriot left got the opportunity "to launch their view of history as a new official policy".⁷⁴ Hence, political motivation behind this change is incontestable.

A New Paradigm: Comparison of the Old and New Textbooks

The narrative and discursive strategy of the old textbook presents how Turkish Cypriot schoolbooks were politicized and used as an instrument of propaganda before the re­vision. The former history textbook under the title of 'History of Cyprus' was written by Vehbi Zeki Serter, the President of the Cyprus Turkish History Association, and used in the secondary schools from 1971 till 2004. The textbook commences with the claim of Cyprus as a geographical extension of Anatolia. It argues that Greeks never ruled Cyprus, thus, have no historical connections with the island. The author even contends Greeks living in Cyprus are not Greeks but relics of different nations that invaded Cyprus throughout history.

Throughout the book the author tries to substantiate the claim Cyprus is Turkish due to its Ottoman heritage. Hence, half of the book is devoted to post-Ottoman history of the island. The rest of the book foremost deals with the modern history of Cyprus; provides a detailed account of the post-1960 incidents and neglects any peaceful inter- that claims "Turkish Cypriotness" rather than "Turkishness", "unification" rather than "separation" and "cooperation" rather than "competition".^[20]

Current Debates and Criticisms on the Cyprus History Textbooks

After the reformation on history education, politicians, historians' and more generally media's interest towards the issue has been increased. While the pro-solution, mainly leftist circles supported this change, the right wing parties, historians and media re­acted strongly against. Denkta? and his associates heavily criticized the content and approach of the textbooks and they cried out the danger on erosion of national identity and termination of national consciousness. The authors of the textbooks attacked by the nationalist media and labelled as traitors. On the other hand, educational circles greatly supported the new history textbooks regarded to be written by contemporary norms, which is replacing the culture of conflict with the culture of reconciliation. Recently, debates on the textbooks and history education reappeared because of the general elections in April 19, 2009. The new textbooks have been part of the election campaign by the right wing conservative parties and groups. Discussions extensively covered by the media. Before the elections the right-wing National Unity Party (UBP) announced that there are tangible mistakes in the books and if they take power their experts will review the history syllabus and make the appropriate corrections. The Democratic Party made similar explanation by saying that the new textbooks do not reflect the history of Turkish Cypriots and they turned into a textbook on culture ra­ther than the history.^[21] As covered in Cyprus Mail, a group called the National Struggle Council's Historical Technical Committee expressed that "the current Turkish Cypriot history textbooks attempted to present Greek and Turkish Cypriots as if they were as similar as eggs in a basket (...) The aim of the books is to divert people and turn them into Cypriots who forget their Turkishness".^[22] Shortly before the elections Denkta§ talked to the press again that our history books should be reviewed by patriotic, na­tionalist, libertarian historians. He expressed that we should not be proud of writing the history books required by European Union, because what EU wants is to cut our ties with Turkey.^[23]

On the other hand, centre-left parties claimed the new textbooks and argued that the change of the old books were inevitable. A strong reaction against the use of history books as an instrument of election campaign came from §ener Elcil, the Secretary General of KTOS. Elcil said:

"The ones who based their politics for years on the blood and tears of this soci­ety are trying to come forward with their chauvinistic explanations on history

textbooks and history education. The racist understanding indoctrinated young brains with hatred and prejudices rose from the grave. It is unacceptable to support going backward and teaching history with blood, tears, enmity, chau­vinism and biases. It should be known that we will stand up harshly against the ones trying to prevent change".⁸⁵

Soon after the victory of UBP in the last elections, printing of the current textbooks for the next semester is cancelled. The new governments' notion on re-revising Cyprus history textbooks is still unidentified. The former author of the Cyprus history book is assigned to improve, update and reproduce the old textbook. On the other hand teacher unions restated that their position is firm as in the past and they will resist educating the youth with chauvinistic, racist and excessively nationalistic textbooks. In addition to the ideological debate, there also have been structural but more con­structive critics of the new textbooks. The basic ones include POST-RI's report Com­parative Analysis of the Old and the New History Textbooks (2007); Yiannis Papadakis's PRIO report entitled History Education in divided Cyprus: A Comparison of Greek Cy­priot and Turkish Cypriot Schoolbooks on the History of Cyprus (2008). In both cases, the revision is celebrated but ideas proposed too on how they can be developed fur­ther. Vural and Ozuyanik's article Redefining Identity in the Turkish-Cypriot School His­tory Textbooks: A Step towards a United Federal Cyprus (2008) can be seen as another standpoint on the revised textbooks in terms of identity politics in Cyprus towards reconciliation.

Journalist Bener Hakeri's criticism on the revised textbooks mostly comprises findings regarding the language of the books as well as some mistakes the books have, such as the grammar and misinformation with reference to few dates and names of the plac­es.^[24] In general, the revised textbooks are quite progressive. A number of spectators pointed out the danger of erasing the painful past for the sake of reconciliation and removing the mourning of the Turkish Cypriots thus alienating the youth from the past as a weakness. On the other hand, lack of balanced presentation of the suffering of the two communities, particularly concerning the sensitive periods such as the 1974 war is mentioned mostly by Greek Cypriot scholars.

Conclusion

Turkish and Greek Cypriots in their long history of living together came into conflict and created "nationalist histories" in which a number of generations have been raised with fixed ideas regarding the "other". Yet the role of education in healing divisions is far-reaching. With this approach, the pro-solution leftist Turkish Cypriot government after the endorsement of the Annan Plan's federal solution by the great majority of the Turkish Cypriots avoided the narrative of conflict for the sake of future reunification. This perspective was reflected in the revised Cyprus history textbooks though it led to a fierce debate in the north.

The change of the Turkish-Cypriot history textbooks stimulated the debate about the revision of Greek-Cypriot history textbooks, without a major step forward. Further­more, the latest attempt to re-revise the textbooks in the North does not leave much room for optimism as UBP was against the new textbooks on ideological level from the beginning.

However, the development of a dialogue, understanding and eventual reconciliation between the Turkish and Greek Cypriots is crucial to coexist peacefully in a multi­ethnic society. Education authorities need to promote and support the development of the history education as a tool for the building of harmony and understanding be­tween the ethnic communities of Cyprus and abandon divisive narratives. Neverthe­less, it should also be noted that although the national curricula and textbooks are vi­tal, students learn through other channels such as the mass media, family or their peer groups. In some cases, students come to school with manipulated views and historical perceptions even before they see the textbooks and exposed to the curriculum. Be­sides, teachers are the ones who implement the textbooks and adopt the curriculum's, therefore, influence the way materials are taught.

References

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Assmussen J. (2004), 'Cyprus after the Failure of the Annan Plan, The European Centre for Minority Issues (ECMI) Brief #11, July, pp.1-15.

Bahceli, S. "Threat to revert to old version of Turkish Cypriot history books", Cyprus Mail, 12.3.2009.

Colak Y. (2006). Political Use of History and Collective Memory in North and South Cy­prus, Paper Presented at ASEN 16th Annual Conference on "Nations and their Pasts: Representing the Past, Building the Future"28-30 March 2006.

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Hakeri, B. (2009), Elestiri: Ortaokullar i^in yazilan Kibris Tarihi Kitaplari (Critique: Cyprus history textbooks for the Lower Secondary School), Kihns daily, 11 April.

Havadis dail. (2009), Partiler arasmda ucjurum (Gap between the political parties), 23 March.

Kibris daily. (2009) Denktas: "Tarih kitaplarimn gdzden ge<;irilmesi lazim" (Denktas: "History textbooks should be revised"), 4 April.

Kizilyurek, N. (1999). "National Memory and Turkish-Cypriot textbooks." Interna­tional Textbook Research, 1999, Vol. 4, no. 21, pp. 387-395.

DILEK LATIF

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Papadakis, Y. (1998). Greek Cypriot narratives of history and collective identity: Na­tionalism as a contested process, American Ethnologist, 25, 149-165.

Papadakis, Y. (2002). The politics of memory and forgetting. http://www.cyprus-con- flict.net.

Papadakis, Y. (2008). History Education in divided Cyprus: A Comparison of Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot Schoolbooks on the History of Cyprus, PRIO Cy­prus Center Report 2/2008.

POST. (2004), Pilot Application for the History and Literature Books of the 5th Grade of the Elementary School, POST, Nicosia.

POST Research Institute. (2007), Project on Education for Peace II, Textual and Visual Analysis of the Lower Secondary School History Textbooks Comparative Analysis of the Old and the New History Textbooks, Funded by UNDP's Action for Co­operation for Trust, with the support of USAID, http://www.porstri.org.

Philippou, S. and Makriyanni, C. (Eds), (2004), Multiperspectivity in teaching and learning history; Presentations from Seminars and Workshop Materials, Coun­cil of Europe, 24-27 November 2004.

Vural Y. and Ozuyanik E. (2008). Redefining Identity in the Turkish-Cypriot School History Textbooks: A Step towards a United Federal Cyprus, South European Society and Politics, Vol. 13, no. 2, June 2008, pp. 133-154.

74 Colak Y. (2006), Political Use of History and Collective Memory in North and South Cyprus,

Paper Presented at ASEN 16th Annual Conference on "Nations and their Pasts: Representing

the Past, Building the Future", 28-30 March 2006.

[1] Due to failing negotiations for the solution of the Cyprus conflict, Turkish Cypriot commu­nity declared the Turkish Federated State of Cyprus in 1975 to pave way for a federal settle­ment on the island. This administration was upgraded to the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in 1983, which is recognized merely by Turkey.

[2] For more information see Sozen, A. (2008), "Ihe Cyprus Negotiations and the Basic Para­meters: An Overview of the Inter-communal Negotiations', in Sozen Ahmet (ed), The Cyprus Conflict: Looking Ahead, EMUPrinting, Famagusta.

[3] Assmussen J. (2004), 'Cyprus after the Failure of the Annan Plan, The European Centre for Minority Issues (ECMI) Brief #11, July, pp.1-15.

[3]      Dimitras, P.E. (2000), 'Writing and Rewriting History in the Context of Balkan Nationa­lisms'. Southeast European Politics, 1, (1), October, pp. 41-59.

[4] For more information see Papadakis, Y. (2008), 'History Education in Divided Cyprus: A Comparison of Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot Schoolbooks on the "History of Cyprus'", Report 2, PRIO Cyprus Centre; Zembylas, M. and Karahasan, H. (2006), 'The Politics of Memory and Forgetting in Pedagogical Practices: Towards Pedagogies of Reconciliation and Peace in Divided Cyprus', The Cyprus Review, 18, (2), Fall; Vural, Y. and Ozuyamk, E. (2008), 'Redefining Identity in the Turkish-Cypriot School History Textbooks: A Step Towards a United Federal Cyprus', South European Society and Politics, 13, ( 2), June; Kizilyurek, N. (1999), 'National Memory and Turkish-Cypriot textbooks', International Textbook Research, 4, ( 21), pp. 387-395; POST-Research Institute. (2007), Textual and Visual Analyses of the Lower Secondary School History Textbooks: Comparative Analysis of the Old and the New His­tory Textbooks, Education for Peace II Report, Nicosia.

[5] Educational Reform Committee, 2004,4.

[6] Educational Reform Committee, 4.

[7] Philippou, S. and Makriyanni, C. (Eds), (2004), Multiperspectivity in teaching and learning history; Presentations from Seminars and Workshop Materials, Council of Europe, 24-27 November 2004.

[8] See Kizilyurek, N. (1999), 'National Memory and Turkish-Cypriot textbooks', International Textbook Research, 4, (21), pp. 387-395; Papadakis, Y. (1998). Greek Cypriot narratives of history and collective identity: Nationalism as a contested process. American Ethnologist, 25, 149-165.

[9] Kizilyurek, N. (1999), 'National Memory and Turkish-Cypriot textbooks', International Text­book Research, 4, ( 21), pp. 387-395.

[10] Similarly, the study in education for international misunderstanding on Cyprus School His­tory Textbooks displayed that the history books used since 1950s in Turkish schools in Cy­prus were mostly the same books used in Turkey. However, the Turkish textbooks reflected Ataturk's policy of promoting friendly relations with Greece. Nevertheless, the outbreak of ethnic strife in Cyprus in 1963 thwarted the relationships.

[11] Hodge, B. and Lewis, G.L. (1966), Cyprus History Textbooks A Study in Education for Inter­national Misunderstanding, Education Advisory Committee of the Parliamentary Group for World Government, London, p. 11.

[12] Papadakis, Y. (1995). 'Nationalist imaginings of war in Cyprus', in: Hinde, R. and Watson, H. (eds.), A cruel necessity? The bases of institutionalised violence, I. B. Tauris Academic Studies, London.

[13] Colak Y. (2006), Political Use of History and Collective Memory in North and South Cyprus, Paper Presented at ASEN 16th Annual Conference on "Nations and their Pasts: Representing the Past, Building the Future", 28-30 March 2006.

[14] The bi-communal 'Education for Peace' Project was executed by UNDP's Bi-Communal De­velopment Program in 2004, and carried out by two NCOs: a Greek Cypriot and a Turkish Cypriot respectively AKTI and POST, in which two research teams studied the Cyprus his­tory textbooks used for the last grade of elementary schools across the border. See AKTI (2004), Report on History and Literature Books of the 6^th Grade of the Elementary School, AKTI, Nicosia.

[15] AKTI. (2004), Report on History and Literature Books of the 6^th Grade of the Elementary School, AKTI, Nicosia.

[16] POST. (2004), Pilot Application for the History and Literature Books of the 5th Grade of the Elementary School, POST, Nicosia.

[17] Cyprus Mail. (2006), History book debate an important first step, August 8.

[18] Cyprus Mirror. (2003) Cyprus Issue: Kofi Annan Meets Valter Svimer, July 8.

[19] Colak Y. (2006), Political Use of History and Collective Memory in North and South Cyprus, Paper Presented at ASEN 16th Annual Conference on "Nations and their Pasts: Representing the Past, Building the Future", 28-30 March 2006.

[20] Yiicel, V. and Ozuyanik E. (2008), 'Redefining Identity in the Turkish-Cypriot School His­tory Textbooks', p. 149.

[21] Havadis daily. (2009), Partiler arasinda uijurum (Gap between the political parties), 23 March 2009.

[22] Bahceli, S. (2009), "Threat to revert to old version of Turkish Cypriot history books", Cyprus Mail, 12 March.

[23] Kibrxs daily. (2009), Denktas: "Tarih kitaplarimn gozden ge^irilmesi lazim" (Denktas: "His­tory textbooks should be revised"), 4 April.

[23]    Yenidiizen daily. (2009), KTOS, "tarih kitaplan" iizerinden yapilan siyasete sert yanit verdi (A strong reaction from KTOS for the political use of the "history textbooks"), 20 March.

[24] Hakeri, B. (2009), Ele^tiri: Ortaokullar ipn yazilan Kibris Tarihi Kitaplan (Critique: Cyprus history textbooks for the Lower Secondary School), Kibris daily, 11 April.